(F.A.C.T.) Fair Agricultural Chemical Taxes
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Footnotes
1 David Tillman, The Greening of the Green Revolution, Nature: 396, 1998. 2 Drinkwater, L.E., Wagoner, P. and Sarrantonio, M. Legume-based Cropping Systems Have Reduced Carbon and Nitrogen Losses, Nature: 396, 1998. 3 Penelope Diebel, Jeffery Williams, and Richard Llewelyn, An Economic Comparison of Conventional and Alternative Cropping Systems for a Representative Northeast Kansas Farm, Review of Ag Econ 17: 323-335, 1995. 4 Illinois Stewardship Alliance, Yields, Economics, and Water Quality: Comparing the Economics and Water Quality of Conventional, No-till, and Organic Cropping Systems, Progress Report on the Farming Systems Comparison Project, 1998. 5 Thomas Dobbs, Profitability Comparisons: Are Emerging Results Conflicting or Are They Beginning to Form Patterns? Presentation at Symposium on "Sustainable Agriculture: Conceptual and Methodological Issues", American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, 1994. 6 James Hanson, Erik Lichtenberg, and Steven Peters, Organic versus Conventional Grain Production in the Mid-Atlantic: An Economic and Farming System Overview, Amer. Journal of Alternative Agriculture 12 (1), 1997. 7 James Smolik, Thomas Dobbs, and Diane Rickerl, The Relative Sustainability of Alternative, Conventional, and Reduced-till Farming Systems, Amer. Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 10 (1), 1995. 8 Glenn Helmers, Michael Langemeier, and Joseph Atwood, An Economic Analysis of Alternative Cropping Systems for East-Central Nebraska, Amer. Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 1 (4), 1987. 9 Wayne Roberts and Scott Swinton, Economic Methods for Comparing Alternative Crop Production Systems: A Review of the Literature, Amer Journ of Alternative Agriculture, 11 (1), 1996. 10 Craig Chase and Michael Duffy, An Economic Comparison of Conventional and Reduced-Farming Systems in Iowa, Amer Journ of Alternative Agriculture 6(4), 1991. 11 W. Vorley and Dennis Keeney Eds., Bugs in the System: Redesigning the Pesticide Industry for Sustainable Agriculture, Earthscan Publications Unlimited, London, 1998. 12 David Pimentel and Hugh Lehman, Eds. The Pesticide Question: Environment, Economics, and Ethics, Chapman & Hall, New York & London, 1993. 13 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston & New York, 1962 14 Robert Repetto and Sanjay S. Baliga, Pesticides and the Immune System: The Public Health Risks, World Resources Institute, 1996. 15 David Pimental et al, 1993. 16 John Wargo, Our Children's Toxic Legacy: How Science and Law Fail to Protect Us from Pesticides, Yale University Press, New Haven & London, 1996. 17 Rachel Carson, 1962. 18 Charles Benbrook, Edward Groth, Jean Halloran, Michael Hanson, and Sandra Marquardt, Pest Management at the Crossroads, Consumers Union, Yonkers, New York, 1996 19 Edward Groth III, Charles Benbrook, and Karen Lutz, Do You Know What You're Eating?: An Analysis of U.S. Government Data on Pesticide Residues in Foods, Consumers Union of United States, Inc., 1999. 20 Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States: Summary of Results of the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA), Pesticides National Synthesis Project, U.S. Geological Survey, 1998. 21 Pesticides in the Atmosphere: Current Understanding of Distribution and Major Influences, NAWQA, U.S. Geological Survey, Fact Sheet FS-152-95, 1997. 22 Shirley Briggs, Basic Guide to Pesticides, Rachel Carson's Council,1992. 23 A National Look at Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater, Nutrients National Synthesis Project, NAWQA, U.S. Geological Survey, 1998. 24 Michael McCabe, "Residents in Poor California Town Decry the Unsafe Drinking Water," San Francisco Chronicle, 5/15/98. 25 Andy Napgezek, "Acid Linked to Soil Aging," The Badger Herald at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, March 3, 1999 reporting on results of study by Phil Barak, Associate Professor, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1999. 26 Gerard Piel, Only One World: Our Own to Make and Keep, W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, 1992. 27 Shirley Briggs, 1992. 28 Mary Deinlein, When It comes to Pesticides, Birds Are Sitting Ducks, Fact Sheet, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, 1997. 29 Charles Benbrook et al, 1996. 30 David Pimentel et al, 1993. 31 Elizabeth Nielsen and Linda Lee, The Magnitude and Costs of Groundwater Contamination from Agricultural Chemicals: A National Perspective, Agricultural Economic Report #576, Economic Research Services, USDA, 1987. 32 Rick Welsh, The Industrial Reorganization of U.S. Agriculture: An Overview and Background Report, Henry A. Wallace Institute for Alternative Agriculture, Policy Studies Report No. 6, April 1996. 33 David Tillman, 1998. 34 Drinkwater et al, 1998. 35 Penelope Diebel et al, 1995. 36 Illinois Stewardship Alliance, 1998. 37 Thomas Dobbs, 1994. 38 James Hanson et al, 1997. 39 James Smolik et al, 1995. 40 Glenn Helmers et al, 1987. 41 Wayne Roberts et al, 1996. 42 Craig Chase et al, 1991. 43 W. Vorley et al, 1998. 44 Charles Benbrook et al, 1996 45 W. Vorley et al, 1998. 46 David Pimentel et al, 1993. 47 W. Vorley et al, 1998. 48 David Ervin, C. Ford Runge, Elisabeth Graffy, Willis Anthony, Sandra Batie, Paul Faeth, Tim Penny, and Tim Warman, Agriculture and the Environment: A New Strategic Vision, Helen Dwight Reid Educational Foundation 40(6), 1998. 49 W. Vorley et al, 1998. 50 Ferd Hoefner, Analysis of Fertilizer and Pesticide Taxes in Maryland, Center for Policy Alternatives, 1991. 51 Funding Safer Farming: Taxing Pesticides and Fertilizers, Center for Science in the Public Interest, 1995. 52 William Pease, James Robison, and Daniel Tuden, Taxing Pesticides to Fund Environmental Protection and Integrated Pest Management, California Policy Seminar, University of California, 1996. 53 W. Vorley et al, 1998. 54 David Pimentel et al, 1993. 55 Center for Science in the Public Interest poll as quoted in "Funding Safer Farming: Taxing Pesticides and Fertilizers", Center for Science in the Public Interest, 1995. 56 International Communications Research of Media, PA, contracted by Friends of the Earth, May29-June 2, 1998. 57 Review and Assessment of Other Countries' Experience with Pesticide Taxes: Lessons for a Possible UK Pesticide/Charge, A Report for the Department of the Environment, Transport, and the Regions, Ecotec Research and Consulting, LTD, 1988. 58 France Plans Taxes on Fertilizers, Pesticides to Adapt 'Polluter Pays' to Agriculture, Daily Report for Executives, Bureau of National Affairs, no. 36, 2/24/99. 59 John Ikerd, Sandra Monson, and Donald Van Dyne, Alternative Farming Systems for U.S. Agriculture: New Estimates of Profit and Environmental Effects, Choices, 3rd Quarter, 1993. 60 David Terry and Bill Kirby, Commercial Fertilizers 1997, The Association of American Plant Food Control Officials and The Fertilizer Institute, Washington, DC, 1998. 61 Based on interviews with appropriate personnel in Departments of Revenue and Taxation in each of the states. 62 Farm Production Expenditures 1997 Summary, Economic Research Service, National Agricultural Statistical Service, USDA, 1998. 63 Estimate derived by multiplying total pesticide sales column by state sales tax rate. 64 Farm Production Expenditures 1997 Summary, 1998. 65 Estimate derived by multiplying total fertilizer sales column by state sales tax rate. 66 Derived by adding "Sales Tax Lost Due to Pesticide Exemption" and "Sales Tax Lost Due to Fertilizer Exemption" columns. 67 Agricultural Fact Book 1997, 1998. 68 Rick Welsh, 1996. 69 Wayne Roberts et al, 1996. 70 Frances Moore Lappe, Joseph Collins, Peter Rosset and Luis Esparza, World Hunger: Twelve Myths (2nd ed.), Institute for Food Policy and Development, 1998. 71 Section 25 of the Food Stamp Act of 1977, as amended by Section 401(h) of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 (Pub.L.104-127) (7 U.S.C. 2034). 72 Paul & Anne Ehrlich, Healing the Planet: Strategies for Resolving the Environmental Crisis, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1991. 73 John Ikerd, 'Ag Industrialization: who should fund it?', Agweek 29 April, 1996, as quoted in W. Vorley et al, 1998. 74 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1996-97, Economic Research Service, USDA, Agricultural Handbook 712. 75 James Liebman, Rising Toxic Tide: Pesticide Use in California, 1991-1995, Pesticide Action Network, 1997. 76 Robert Repetto et al, 1996. 77 David Pimental et al, 1993. 78 John Wargo, 1996. 79 Rachel Carson, 1962. 80 Charles Benbrook, 1996. 81 Edward Groth III et al, 1999. 82 Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States, U.S.G.S., 1998. 83 Pesticides in the Atmosphere,U.S.G.S.,1997. 84 A National Look at Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater, 1998. 85 Michael McCabe, 5/15/98. 86 Andy Napgezek, March 3, 1999. 87 Gerard Piel, 1992. 88 Rachel Carson, 1962 89 "New Study Points to Inadequate Testing of Pesticides", PANUPS, March 26, 1999 citing Warren Porter et al, Endocrine, immune and behavioral effects of aldicarb (carbamate), atrazine (triazine), and nitrate (fertilizer) mixtures at groundwater concentrations, Toxicology and Industrial Health, 15: 133-150, 1999. 90 US Geological Survey, Pesticides by Crop, derived from US Census of Agriculture, 1992 & 1995. 91 Ranking of States and Commodities by Cash Receipts, 1992, ERS Bulletin 871, USDA, 1993. 92 1994 Iowa Farm and Rural Life Poll, 1994 Summary Report, Iowa State University, quoted in W. Vorley et al, 1998. 93 Charles Benbrook et al, 1996. 94 Agricultural Fact Book 1997, 1998. 95 Agricultural Resources and Environmental Indicators, 1996-97, Economic Research Service, USDA, Agricultural Handbook 712. 96 W. Vorley et al, 1998. 97 David Pimentel et al, 1993. 98 Fields of Change: A New Crop of American Farmers Finds Alternatives to Pesticides, Natural Resources Defense Council Report, 1998. 99 Rachel Carson, 1962. 100 Chemical Hazard Data Availability Study, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, EPA, 1998. 101 Pesticides: 30 Years Since Silent Spring — Many Long-standing Concerns Remain, U.S. General Accounting Office Testimony Before Subcommittee on Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources, Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, GAO/T-RCED-92-77, 1992. 102 US EPA, "Pesticides and Child Safety," posted on the EPA web site at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/citizens/childsaf.htm, 1999. 103 David Pimentel et al, 1993. 104 US EPA, Pesticides and National Strategies for Health Care Providers: Workshop Proceedings, April 23-24, 1998, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA 735-R-98-001, July 1998. 105 A National Look at Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater, U.S.G.S., 1998. 106 In the arena of pesticides, where many distinct products representing various chemical combinations are used in a variety of environmental settings, the task of looking back and interpreting the associated health effects is enormous. A variety of animal studies suggest a possible link between pesticides and adverse health effects including increased rates of leukemias and other cancers as well as reproductive problems and immune system suppression. Beyond animal studies, evidence suggesting a link between exposure to agricultural chemicals and a variety of adverse health effects comes primarily from studies of occupationally-exposed populations — people who farm or reside in farming areas. This reliance on occupational exposure studies to better understand health effects is a common approach in epidemiological work, and the data collected thus far has troubling implications for the farming community as well as the general public. 107 John Streicher, Air Concentrations and Inhalation Exposure to Pesticides in Agricultural Health Pilot Study, SR-97/059, 1997. 108 Natural Resources Defense Council, Trouble on the Farm: Growing Up with Pesticides in Agricultural Communities, 1998. 109 Agricultural Fact Book 1997, 1998. 110 Deborah Schoch, "California and the West; Danger or False Alarm? Agriculture: Report Says 4 million People Live Near Where Pesticides Are Used. State Officials Call the Study Alarmist and Incomplete", Los Angeles Times, 8/20/98. 111 Lynn R. Goldman, "Chemicals and Children's Environment: What We Don't Know About Risks," Environmental Health Perspectives, 106 (Suppl3): 875-880, 1998. 112 US EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs, "Pesticidal Chemicals Classified as Known, Probable or Possible Human Carcinogens", available on EPA's web site at http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ carlist/table.htm, 1999. 113 Blair, A. and S.H. Zahm, "Agricultural exposures and cancer," Environmental Health Perspectives, November 1995, 103 Suppl 8: 205-8 114 Schreinemachers, Dina, John Creason and Vincent Garry, "Cancer mortality in agricultural regions of Minnesota," Environmental Health Perspectives, March 1999, 107 Suppl 3. 115 Schettler, Ted, Gina Solomon, Jonathan Kaplan and Maria Valenti, Generations at Risk: How Environmental Toxicants May Affect Reproductive Health in California, Physicians for Social Responsibility, Greater San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles Chapters, and the California Public Interest Research Group Charitable Trust, November 1998. 116 Rupa, D.S., P.P. Reddy and O.S. Reddi, "Reproductive performance in population exposed to pesticides in cotton fields in India," Environmental Research 55:123-128, 1991. 117 Garry, V.F., et al, "Pesticide appliers, biocides, and birth defects in rural Minnesota", Environmental Health Perspectives, 104: 394-399, 1996. 118 Kohler, W., et al, "Environmental risk factors in Parkinson's disease," Neurology, 40: 1218-1221. 119 Pimentel, David, et al, 1993. 120 PANUPS, March 26, 1999. 121 Not surprisingly, public policy debates on pesticide use and regulation are marked by lively exchange on the issue of health effects. Some, particularly those in the business of making and selling agricultural chemicals, would defer action until the evidence of harm from specific pesticides is iron-clad, others espouse caution and remind us that inquiries into the genesis of human disease are seldom marked by speed or certainty. 122 Shirley Briggs, 1992. 123 Edward Groth III et al, 1999. 124 Mary Deinlein, 1997. 125 Ibid. 126 Endocrine Disruption: An Overview and Resource List, Natural Resources Defense Council, 1998. 127 Investigations of Endocrine Disruption in Aquatic Systems Associated with the NAWQA Program, USGS, Fact Sheet FS-081, 1998. 128 Colburn, T. and Clement, C. eds. Chemical Induced Alterations in Sexual and Function Development: The Wildlife/Human Connection: Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology, Princeton Scientific Publishing Co, vol. 21, 1992; Henny, C. J., Grove, R.A., and Hedstrom, O.R., A Field Evalution of Mink and Otter on the Lower Columbia River and the Influence of Environmental Contaminants: Final Report for Lower Columbia River Bi-State Water-Quality Program, 1996; Facemire, C.F., Gross, T.S., and Guillette, L.J., Jr., Reproductive Impairment in the Florida Panther: Nature or Nurture?, Environmental Health Perspectives 103 (4), 1995, and Guillette, L.J., Jr., Gross, T.S., Masson, G.R., Matter, J.M., Recival, H.F., and Woodward, A.R., Developmental Abnormalities of the Gonad and Abnormal Sex Hormone Concentrations in Juvenile Alligators from Contaminated and Control Lakes in Florida, Environmental Health Perspectives, 102, 1994 as cited in Investigations of Endocrine Disruption in Aquatic Systems Associated with the NAWQA Program, USGS, Fact Sheet FS-081, 1998. 129 Charles Benbrook et al,1996. 130 Ibid. 131 National Research Council, 1993b, p. 445. 132 John Wargo, 1996 133 Ibid. 134 The EPA began to seek out information from states and researchers and to look behind the detections to determine the circumstances of pesticide use that led to contamination. By 1984, EPA documented findings of 12 pesticides in groundwater from 18 states believed to be the result of normal field applications. The count rose to 17 pesticides in 23 states in 1986, and 46 pesticides in 26 states in 1988 — all associated with legal pesticide application practices. U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, Beneath the Bottom Line: Agricultural Approaches to Reduce Agri-chemical Contamination of Groundwater, Washington, DC, 1990. 135 According to USDA, 18 of the pesticides found in 1988 were found at levels higher than the government water quality standards or advisories; seven had already been severely restricted or canceled. USDA, Agricultural Chemical Use and Groundwater Quality: Where are the Potential Problem Areas?, Robert Kellogg, Margaret Stewart Maizel, and Don Goss, Washington, DC, 1992. 136 "Pesticides in Ground Water," U.S. Geological Survey, National Water Quality Assessment, Pesticide National Synthesis Project, Factsheet FS-244-95, 1995. 137 The U.S. Department of Agriculture points out that most pesticide-related surface water investigations have focused on the nation's breadbasket — the Midwestern regions characterized by heavy agri-chemical usage. 138 In the Mid-western regions, Goolsby and others have found that herbicides are detected at low levels in rivers throughout the year. 139 Ronnie Cohen and Jennifer Curtis, Agricultural Solutions: Improving Water Quality in California through Conservation and Pesticide Reduction, Natural Resources Defense Council, 1998. 140 Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States, U.S.G.S.,1998. 141 A National Look at Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater, U.S.G.S.,1998. 142 Pesticides in Surface and Ground Water of the United States, U.S.G.S., 1998. 143 "Pesticides in Ground Water," U.S.G.S., 1997 144 A National Look at Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater, U.S.G.S., 1998. 145 Andy Napgezek, March 3, 1999. 146 Jacqueline Savitz, Todd Hettenbach, and Richard Wiles, Factory Farming: Toxic Waste and Fertilizer in the United States, 1990-1995, Environmental Working Group, 1998. 147 Pesticides in the Atmosphere,U.S.G.S., 1997. 148 Zev Ross and Jonathan Kaplan, Poisoning the Air: Airborne Pesticides in California, CALPIRG Charitable Trust and Californians for Pesticide Reform, 1998. 149 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, WMO, Geneva, 1994. 150 David Schimel, B.H. Braswell, and W.J. Parton, Equilibration of the Terrestrial Water, Nitrogen, and Carbon Cycles, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 94: pp 8280-8283, 1997. 151 Engelstad, O.P. Crop Nutrition Technology, Future Agricultural Technology and Resource Conservation, English, B.C. Editor, Iowa State University Press, Ames, 1984. 152 Drinkwater, L.E., 1998. 153 John Wargo, 1996. 154 W. Vorley et al, 1998. 155 David Tillman, 1998. 156 Drinkwater, L.E. et al, 1998. 157 Penelope Diebel et al, 1995. 158 Illinois Stewardship Alliance, 1998. 159 Thomas Dobbs, 1994. 160 James Hanson et al, 1997. 161 James Smolik et al, 1995. 162 Glenn Helmers et al, 1987. 163 Wayne Roberts et al, 1996. 164 Craig Chase et al, 1991. 165 Tod Glasgow, Progress Report on the Farming Systems Comparison Project: Yields, Economics and Water Quality, Illinois Stewardship Alliance, Rochester, IL, 1998. 166 John Ikerd et al, 1993. 167 Fields of Change, 1998. 168 John Ikerd et al, 1993. 169 David Pimentel et al, 1993. 170 Elizabeth Nielsen and Linda Lee, The Magnitude and Costs of Groundwater Contamination from Agricultural Chemicals: A National Perspective, Agricultural Economic Report #576, Economic Research Services, USDA, 1987. 171 Erica Walz, Final Results of the Third Biennial National Organic Farmer's Survey, Organic Farming Research Foundation, 1999. 172 Ibid. 173 David Tillman, The Greening of the Green Revolution, Nature 396, 1998. 174 John Ikerd et al, 1993. 175 Agricultural and the Environment: 1991 Yearbook on Agriculture, USDA, 1991. 176 Fields of Change, 1998. 177 John Ikerd et al, 1993. 178 John Ikerd, Sustainable Agriculture: A Positive Alternative to Industrial Agriculture, Proceedings of Heartland Roundup, Manhattan, KS, Sponsored by Heartland Network and the Kansas Rural Center, 1996. 179 Ibid. 180 Charles Benbrook et el, 1996. 181 David Tillman, 1998. 182 Drinkwater, L.E. et al, 1998. 183 Penelope Diebel et al, 1995. 184 Illinois Stewardship Alliance, 1998. 185 Thomas Dobbs, 1994. 186 James Hanson et al, 1997. 187 James Smolik et al, 1995. 188 Glenn Helmers et al, 1987. 189 Wayne Roberts et al, 1996. 190 Craig Chase et al, 1991.
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